Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America was the extraction and refining of metals, as well as creating metal alloys and fabrication with metals by Native Americans before European contact at the end of the 15th century. Native Americans have used native metal from ancient times, with the recent discovery of gold artifacts in the Andes region dated to 2155-1936 BC, and found North American copper dated around 5000 BC. The metal will be found in nature without the need for a smelting technique and is shaped into the desired shape using hot and cold hammer techniques without chemically altering it by combining it. To date, "no one has found any evidence to suggest the use of smelting, smelting and casting in prehistoric East America." In South America the case is very different. Indigenous South Americans have full metallurgy with melting and various metals that are deliberately made. Metallurgy in Mesoamerica and West Mexico evolved from contact with South America through Ecuadorian sea merchants.
Video Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America
South America
South American metal work appears to have developed in the Andean region of modern Europe, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, and Argentina with gold and copper being hammered and shaped into intricate objects, especially ornaments. Recently discovered the earliest gold dates worked for 2155-1936 BC. and the earliest copper work in 1432-1132 BC. The study of ice cores in Bolivia suggests that copper smelting may have started in early 2000 BC. These works come from the context of socially and economically changing societies but there are still very few food producers and have not quite settled. This is in contrast to the idea that this type of metal work evolves in a society with enough food surplus to support ÃÆ' Â © lite. Instead of being the product of a hierarchical society, gold may be united in the development of such a society. Further evidence for this type of metal work comes from sites in Waywaka, ChavÃÆ'n and Kotosh, and appears to have spread throughout the Andean community at the beginning of the horizon (1000-200 BC).
Unlike in other metallurgical traditions where metal is important because of its extensive use in areas ranging from armaments to everyday appliances, metals in South America (and later in Central America) are especially valued as jewelry and objects that represent high status (though more functional items may have been produced). During the initial horizon, progress in metal work in the spectacular and distinctive Andean gold objects was made by the incorporation of smaller metal sheets, and also the gold-silver alloy emerged.
Two traditions seem to have developed with each other - one in northern Peru and Ecuador, and another in the Altiplano region of southern Peru, Bolivia and Chile. There is evidence for copper sulfide smelting in the Altiplano region around the beginning of the horizon. The evidence for this comes from the copper slag found on some sites, with the ore itself probably coming from the southern Chilean-Bolivia border. The use of a "portable" smelting furnace around Puma Punku, Bolivia and at three additional sites in Peru and Bolivia to produce, in situ, I "blocks" to connect to large stone blocks during the construction process is a function which seems to be anomalous for metal smelting. The chemical analyzes reported from this metal powder are 95.15% copper, 2.05% arsenic, 1.70% nickel, 0.84% ​​silicon and 0.26% iron. This date estimate flows between 800-500 BC.
The evidence for a fully developed melting, however, only arose with the Moche culture (north coast, 200Ã, BCE-600Ã, CE). Ore extracted in shallow deposits on the feet of the Andes, either by special workers or slaves/prisoners is unclear. In each case the ore is believed to have been melted in a nearby location, proved in the actual metal artifacts and from the ceramic vessel depicting the process, which is believed to have occurred in an adobe brick furnace with at least three blow pipes to provide the required airflow to reach high temperatures. The resulting ingot will then be moved to the coastal centers where the formation of the object will occur in special workshops. Both workshops are found and researched located near the administrative sections of each city - again an indication of the high value placed on the metal.
The objects themselves are still mainly ornaments, now often attached to the beads. Some functional objects are made modern but elaborately decorated and often found in the context of high status cemeteries. For this reason, it is believed that they are still used more for symbolic purposes. The appearance of gold or silver seems important, with a large number of gold or silver-plated objects and the appearance of Tumbaga, copper/gold and sometimes also silver alloys. Bronze arsenic is also being melted from a sulphide ore, a self-developed or studied practice of southern tradition. The earliest known powder metallurgy, and the earliest work of platinum in the world, seems to be developed by the Esmeraldas culture (NW of Ecuador) at some point before the Spanish Conquest
The technology is gradually spreading north to Colombia, Panama and Costa Rica, reaching Guatemala and Belize at 800Ã, CE. Towards c.100-700 CE, 'depletion depletion' was developed by the Nahuange culture at Columbia to produce ornamental variations such as 'golden roses'.
Only with the Incas, metal really became a more useful use. Nevertheless, they remain the material used to display wealth and status. The importance of the characteristics placed on the color, which has led to some previous developments, is still there (association of sun/moon with gold/silver). Metals other than gold also have intrinsic value, with ax pieces being a special note in this regard. With the spread of metal tools performed by the Inca, it is thought likely that the use of the longer Metal World will become more common. However, as Bruhns notes, "Bronze can be seen as an expensive substitute for equally efficient stones".
Maps Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America
Central America and the Caribbean
Gold, copper and tumbaga objects began to be produced in Panama and Costa Rica between 300-500 CE. Casting open with gilded oxidation and cast filigre is in use. With 700-800Ã, CE, common small metal sculptures and various gold ornaments and tumbars consist of regular regulars of high status people in Panama and Costa Rica.
The earliest specimens of metal from the Caribbean are carbon-carbon alloy sheets dated 70-374 CE. Most Caribbean metallurgy has been dated to between 1200 and 1500 CE and consists of simple, small pieces such as sheets, pendants, beads and bells. These are mostly gold or gold alloys (with copper or silver) and have been found mostly cold-fried and alluvial nuets that are polished sand, although some items seem to have been produced by the lost wax casting. It is estimated that at least some of these items were acquired by trade from Columbia
Mesoamerica
Metallurgy only appeared in Mesoamerica at 800Ã, CE with the best evidence of West Mexico. Much like in South America, fine metal is seen as a material for the elite. The special qualities of color metal and resonance seem to be most attractive and then lead to the development of certain technologies seen in the region.
The exchange of ideas and goods with people from the territories of Ecuador and Colombia (possibly via maritime routes) seems to have sparked early interest and development. Similar types of metal artifacts are found in Western Mexico and two regions: copper rings, needles and tweezers made in the same way as in Ecuador and also found in similar archaeological contexts. Many bells are also found, but in this case they are cast using the same wax casting method as seen in Colombia. During this period, copper was used almost exclusively.
Ongoing contacts kept the flow of ideas from the same region and then, coinciding with the development of the Andean long maritime trade, further south influence seemed to have reached the region and caused a second period (1200-1300 CE for the arrival of Spain). At the moment, copper alloys are being explored by Western Mexican metallurgists, in part because of the different mechanical properties needed for certain fashion artifacts, especially ax-money - further proof for contact with the Andean region. In general, however, newly introduced properties of alloys are developed to meet regional needs, notably the turning bell, which sometimes has a high lead content in bronze that is irrelevant to its mechanical properties but gives golden bells of color.
Artifacts and techniques are actually imported from the south, but western Mexican metallurgists work the ore from abundant local deposits; the metal is not imported. Even as technology spreads from the West to north-eastern, central and southern Mexico, the artifacts that can be traced back to Western Mexican ores are abundant, if not exclusive. It is not always clear whether the metal reaches its final destination as the ingots, ores or artifacts are completed. The study of metal artefacts from southern Mesoamerica with missing and different wax techniques with western Mexican artifacts has shown that there may be a second point of metallurgical emergence to Mesoamerica there because no known source can be identified.
The Aztecs did not initially adopt working metal, although they had acquired metal objects from others. However, as conquests acquired their metal working areas, the technology began to spread. At the time of the Spanish conquest, the bronze smelting technology seemed to begin to emerge.
North America
Archaeological evidence has not revealed metal smelting or metal alloys by pre-Columbian natives north of the Rio Grande; However, they use native copper extensively.
As widely accepted as this statement may not be considered synonymous with the lack of metallic objects, since it shows abundant native copper especially in the Great Lakes region and "faces the simple fact that there is very little to be gained by melting..." The last glacial period has produces excavation of copper-lined stones. Once the ice comes back, it's readily available for use in any size. Copper is formed through a cold hammer into an object from a very early date (Archaic period in the Great Lakes region: 8000-1000Ã, BCE). There is also evidence of actual mining of the copper vein (Old Copper Complex), but there is disagreement about the date.
Extraction will be very difficult. Hammerstones may have been used to break pieces that are small enough to work with. This labor-intensive process may have been reduced by building a fire above the deposit, then rapidly flushing hot rocks with water, creating tiny cracks. This process can be repeated to create more small cracks.
Copper can then become cold-hammered into shape, which will make it brittle, or hammered and heated in an annealing process to avoid this. The last object should then be ground and sharpened using local sandstone. Many bars have also been found, perhaps indicating the trade that formed them into bars also serves as a testament to quality.
The Great Lake artifacts found in East Woodlands of North America seem to indicate there is a wide trading network in 1000 BC. Progressively the use of copper for equipment decreases with more jewelry and jewelry being discovered. This is believed to be an indication of social change in a more hierarchical society.
Yet this Great Lake model as a unique source of copper and copper technology remaining somewhat static for over 6,000 years has recently come to some degree of criticism, especially since other deposits seem to have been available to ancient North Americans, even if many more small.
During the Mississippian period (800-1600 CE, vary locally), elites in major political and religious centers throughout the central and southeastern United States use copper ornaments as a sign of their status with the craft of sacred material being representations connected with the Warrior War of warriors. from the Southeast Complex Ceremonial (SECC). These ornaments include the Mississippian copper slabs, the beaten copper repousse plate now found as far away as Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Tennessee. Some of the more famous of the dishes are raptorial birds and warrior-themed birds. These plates, such as Rogan's plate from Etowah, the Spiro plate of Spiro in Oklahoma, and the Wulfing Pass of southeast Missouri, are instrumental in the development of the archaeological concept known as S.E.C.C.
The only Mississippian cultural site in which copper workshops have been discovered by archaeologists is Cahokia in western Illinois. Excavation of the copper workshop in Mound 34 (a small mound located at Ramey Plaza east of the Monks Mound) shows that copper works there. Many copper fragments and ash from the flames were found in the area as well as the remains of three tree stumps alleged to have been used to hold the anvil stones used to punch out flattened copper sheets.
After the collapse of the Mississippian way of life in the 1500s with the advent of European colonization, copper still retained a place in the Native American religious life as a special material. Copper is traditionally considered sacred by many of the Eastern tribes of the historic period. Copper nuggets are included in the drug bundle among the Great Lakes tribe. Among the 19th century Creeks Muscogee, a group of copper plates carried along the Eye Trail are considered some of the holiest things of the tribe.
Northwest Coast
Metals that work on the Northwest Coast prior to date record contact with Europeans or other outsiders. Copper and iron items have been found in archaeological and ethnographic collections, and metals, especially copper, have an important significance in culture. The Ozette Indian Village Archeological Site in what is now Washington State was buried by a landslide some 500 years ago is one example of pre-contact metal articles - including iron. In this part of the world, the 1560 (date of site - Archaeological Site of Ozette Indian Village) prior to the date of record contact with Europeans.
Koppers - the traditional form of ceremonial objects - these objects have significant historical and ceremonial significance across a wide area. While the appearance of copper trade necessarily increases the size and quantity of copper, they do not come from or after contact.
A cold copper dagger is struck, and some iron examples are also clear. Bone antecedents show shape development.
" If not for an early tourist statement on the Northwest Coast, it would be hard to believe that many beautifully-wrought steel daggers collected there were made by indigenous blacksmiths. p.Ã, 66. Vaughan & Holm 1990
In a number of preliminary reports by explorers and traders, Indians are eager to trade and demand for metals is very strong.
Also see
- Ax-monies
- Cape York meteorites
- Copper Inuit
- Mississippian copper plate
- Muisca goldworking
- Original copper
Note
Further reading
Leibsohn, Dana, and Barbara E. Mundy, "Art World Mechanics," Vistas: Visual Culture in Latin America, 1520-1820 (2015). http://www.fordham.edu/vistas.Source of the article : Wikipedia
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