History of surgery

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Surgery ( cheirourgia , from the Greek cheir , "hands" ergon , "work") is a branch of medicine that deals with the physical manipulation of the body structure to diagnose, prevent, or cure a disease. Ambroise ParÃƒ Â© Ãƒ Â©, a 16th-century French surgeon, stated that to perform an operation is, "To eliminate what is excessive, restore the dislocated, separate the unified, join the divided and fix the defects of nature. "

Since humans first learned how to make and handle equipment, they have used their talents to develop surgical techniques, each time more sophisticated than the last; However, until the industrial revolution, surgeons were unable to overcome three major obstacles that have disrupted the medical profession since its infancy - bleeding, pain and infection. Advances in this field have changed the operation of the "art" at risk of becoming a scientific discipline capable of treating many diseases and conditions.

Video History of surgery

Origins

The first surgical technique was developed to treat injuries and trauma. Combinations of archaeological and anthropological studies offer insight into early human techniques for sewing lacerations, amputating the nonrefundable limbs, and draining and burning open wounds. Many examples exist: some Asian tribes use a mixture of belching and sulfur placed on the wound and burning to burn the wound; The Dakota people use quill pens attached to the animal's animal to suck on festering material; the discovery of needles from the stone age seems to indicate that they are used in cutting sutures (Maasai uses acacia needles for the same purpose); and tribes in India and South America developed ingenious methods to seal minor injuries by using termites or scarabs that bite the wound edges and then twist the insect's neck, leaving their rigid heads like staples.

Trepanation

The oldest operation in which evidence exists is trepanation (also known as trepanning, trephination, trephining or burr hole from the Greek ???????? and ???????? , where holes are drilled or scraped into the skull to expose the dura mater to treat health problems associated with intracranial pressure and other diseases. In cases of head injuries, surgical interventions are implemented to investigate and diagnose wound properties and the extent of the impact of bone fragments removed better by scratching followed by postoperative procedures and treatments to avoid infection and assist in the healing process.. Evidence has been found in prehistoric human bodies from Proto-Neolithic and Neolithic times, in cave paintings, and procedures continue to be used well into historical accounts (described by ancient Greek writers such as Hippocrates). Of the 120 prehistoric skulls found on a burial site in France dated 6500 BC, 40 have trepanation holes. Folke Henschen, a Swedish physician and historian, asserted that Soviet excavations on the banks of the Dnieper River in the 1970s showed the existence of binding at the time of Mesolithic dated about 12,000 BC. Remnants show belief that trepanning can cure epilepsy seizures, migraines, and certain mental disorders.

There is significant evidence of skull bone healing in the prehistoric framework, suggesting that many of those who continue with surgery survive their surgery. In some studies, the survival rate exceeds 50%.

Organize bones

Examples of fractures that are healed in prehistoric human bones, indicating arrangement and splinting have been found in archaeological records. Among the few treatments used by the Aztecs, according to Spanish texts during the Mexican conquest, were fractured bone reductions: "... the broken bone had to be sprayed, extended and adjusted, and if this was not enough, an incision was made at the end of the bone , and the pine branch is inserted into the medulla cavity... "Modern medicine developed a technique similar to this in the 20th century known as medullary fixation.

Anesthesia

Bloodletting
Bloodletting is one of the oldest medical practices, which has been practiced among diverse ancient societies, including Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Maya, and the Aztecs. In Greece, bloodshed is in use around the time of Hippocrates, which mentions bloodshed but generally relies on diet techniques. Erasistratus, however, theorizes that many diseases are caused by most, or excessively, in the blood, and suggest that most of these are treated, initially, with exercise, sweating, reducing food intake, and vomiting. Herophilus advocated bloodshed. Archagathus, one of the first Greek doctors to train in Rome, practiced extensive bloodshed. The art of bloodshed became very popular in the West, and during the Renaissance one can find blood-thinening calendars that recommend blood-matching times during the year and books claiming to spill blood will cure inflammation, infection, stroke, manic psychosis, and more.
Maps History of surgery

Antiquity

Mesopotamia
The Sumerians see disease as a divine punishment imposed by a different demon when someone breaks the rules. For this reason, to become a doctor, one must learn to identify about 6,000 demons that may be causing health problems. To do this, the Sumerians used a prophetic technique based on the flight of birds, the positions of stars and the hearts of certain animals. In this way, drugs are closely related to the priests, who are handing surgery to a second-class medical specialist.
However, Sumeria developed several important medical techniques: in Ninevah archaeologists have found bronze instruments with obsidian sharpened to resemble modern scalpels, knives, trephines, etc. The Code of Hammurabi, one of Babylon's earliest legal codes, itself contains special rules governing surgeons and medical compensation as well as malpractice and compensation of victims:
215. If a doctor makes a large incision with a surgical blade and heals him, or if he opens a tumor (above the eye) with a surgical blade, and saves his eyes, he will receive ten shekels of money.
217. If he becomes a slave to another person, the owner must give the doctor two shekels.
218. If a doctor makes a large incision with a surgical blade, and kills him, or opens the tumor with a surgical blade, and cuts his eyes, his hands will be cut off.
220. If he opens the tumor with a surgical blade, and removes his eyes, he has to pay half his value.

Egypt
Around the year 3100 BC Egyptian civilization began to develop when Narmer, the first Pharaoh in Egypt, founded the capital of Memphis. Just like the pointy tablets that preserve the knowledge of the ancient Sumerians, hieroglyphs retain Egyptian language.
In the time of the first monarchy (2700 BC) the first treaty of operation was written by Imhotep, vizier Pharaoh Djoser, priest, astronomer, physician and first leading architect. So much that he was famous for his medical skills that he was deified, became the Egyptian god of medicine. Other famous doctors of the Ancient Kingdom (from 2500 to 2100 BC) were Sachmet, physicians from Pharaoh Sahure and Nesmenau, whose positions were similar to medical directors.
At one of the doorjambs the entrance to the Temple of Memphis is the oldest recorded carvings of medical procedures: circumcision and engraving in Kom Ombo, Egypt describes surgical instruments. Still from all the inventions made in ancient Egypt, the most important discovery relating to ancient Egyptian knowledge of drugs is the Ebers Papyrus, named after its discoverer, Georg Ebers. The Ebers Papyrus, held at the University of Leipzig, is considered one of the oldest treaties on the most important medicines and medical papyrus. This text is dated around 1550 BC and measures 20 meters in length. This text includes recipes, pharmacopoeia and descriptions of various diseases as well as cosmetic treatments. It mentions how surgery treats crocodile bites and serious burns, recommends drainage of inflamed pus but warns against certain diseased skins.
Edwin Smith Papyrus
The Edwin Smith Papyrus is a lesser known papyrus dating from 1600 BC and only 5 meters in length. This is a manual for performing traumatic operations and gives 48 cases of history. The Smith Papyrus describes treatment for repairing broken noses, and use of stitches to seal wounds. Infection is treated with honey. For example, it gives instructions to handle the dislocation vertebra:
You should tie it with fresh meat on the first day. You should have removed the bandage and put oil on his head as far as his neck, (and) you have to tie it with ymrw. You should treat him afterwards with honey every day, (and) his relief is still there until he is healed.

India
Archaeologists made the discovery that people from the Indus Valley Civilization, even from the earliest Harappan period (c.3300 BC), had knowledge of medicine and dentistry. The physical anthropologist performing the examination, Professor Andrea Cucina of the University of Missouri-Columbia, made the discovery when he cleaned the teeth of one of the men. Subsequent research in the same area found evidence of drilled teeth, from 9,000 years to 7,000 BC.
Sushruta (around 600 BC) is considered a "surgical father". Periodenya usually placed between the period 1200 BC - 600 BC. One of the earliest known mention of names is from the Bower Manuscript where Sushruta is listed as one of the ten rishis in the Himalayas. The text also shows that he studied operations in Kasi of Lord Dhanvantari, the god of medicine in Hindu mythology. He is an early innovator of plastic surgery who teaches and performs operations on the banks of the Ganges River in an area corresponding to the city of Varanasi in North India today. Much of what is known about the Sushruta is in Sanskrit contained in a series of volumes which he wrote, collectively known as Sushuta Samhita.

This is one of the oldest known surgical texts and describes in detail the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of various diseases, as well as procedures for performing various forms of cosmetic surgery, plastic surgery and nose surgery.
Greek and Hellenized world
The surgeon is now considered a special doctor, whereas in the early Greek world a trained general practitioner had to use his hands ( ???? in Greek) to carry out all medical processes and medications including for example treating wounds that suffered on the battlefield, or broken bone treatment (a process called in Greek: ??????????? ).
In The Iliad Homer names two doctors, "two sons of Asklepios, the astonishing physician Podaleirius and Machaon and one doctors acting, Patroclus." Because Machaon was wounded and Podaleirius in the battle of Eurypylus asked Patroclus "to cut this arrow out from my thighs, clean the blood with warm water and apply a relaxing ointment on the wound. "
Hippocrates
The Hippocratic Oath, written in the 5th century BC, provides the earliest protocol for professional behavior and ethical behavior that a young physician must adhere to in life and in caring for and managing the health and privacy of his patients. The various volumes of the Hippocratic corpus and the Hippocratic Oath elevate and separate the proper standard of Hippocratic medical behavior and the basic medical and surgical principles of other traditional medicine practitioners often encumbered by superstitious constructions, and/or specialists from some of them. will seek to carry out invasive body procedures with dubious consequences, such as lithotomy. Works of Hippocratic corps include; On Articulation or On Joints , On Fracture , On Reduction Instrument , Formation or Doctor Surgery , On Head Injuries , In Ulcus , In Fistula , and On Hemorrhoids .
Celsus and Alexandria
Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos were two Alexandrians who laid the groundwork for the scientific study of anatomy and physiology. The Alexandrian surgeon is responsible for the development of ligatur (hemostasis), lithotomy, hernia surgery, eye surgery, plastic surgery, dislocation and fracture reduction methods, tracheostomy, and mandrake as anesthesia. Most of what we know about them comes from Celsus and Galen of Pergamum (Greek: ??????? )
Galen
Galen In Nature The Faculties, Books I, II, and III, are an excellent paradigm of the highly skilled Greek surgeon and physician of the 2nd century Roman era, who performed very complicated surgical operations and added significantly to the animal corpus and human. physiology and art of operation. He was one of the first to use ligatur in his experiments on animals. Galen is also known as "The King of the Catgut Jahure"
China
In China, instruments resembling surgical instruments have also been found at the Bronze Age archaeological site dating from the Shang Dynasty, along with seeds that may be used for herbal medicine.
Hua Tuo
Hua Tuo (140-208) was a famous Chinese physician during the Eastern Han and Three Kingdoms era. He was the first person to have surgery with the help of anesthesia, some 1600 years before the practice was adopted by Europeans. Bian Que (Pien Ch'iao) was the "magic doctor" described by Chinese historian Sima Qian in his Shiji. credited with many skills. Another book, Liezi (Lieh Tzu) explains that Bian Que made a two-way exchange of hearts between people. This account also credits Bian Que using general anesthesia that will place it long before Hua Tuo, but sources in Liezi are questioned and the author may have compiled the story from other works. Nonetheless, it sets the concept of a heart transplant back to about 300 CE.
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Medieval
Paul of Aegina c. 625 - c. 690) Pragmateia or Compendiem is very influential. Abulcasis repeats matter, mostly word for word.
Hunayn ibn Ishaq (809-873) was a Nestorian Arab Christian doctor who translated many Greek medical and scientific texts, including Galen, who wrote the first systematic treatment for ophthalmology.
Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (854-925), "Hippocrates Islam" advanced as an experimental drug, pioneering ophthalmology and establishing pediatrics.
In the 9th century, Salerno Medical School in southwestern Italy was established, utilizing Arabic texts and evolving through the 13th century.
Egyptian-born Jewish physician Isaac Israel ben Solomon (832-892) left many medical works written in Arabic which were translated and adopted by European universities in the early 13th century.
The Persian physician Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (d. 994) worked at Al-Adudi Hospital in Baghdad, leaving behind the Complete Medical Art Book, which emphasized the need for medical ethics and discussed anatomy. and the physiology of the human brain.
Abulcasis (936-1013) (Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi) was an Andalusian-Arab physician and scientist practicing on the outskirts of Zahra Cordoba. He is considered a great medieval surgeon, although he adds a bit of Greek surgical practice. His work in operation was very influential.
The Persian physician Avicenna (980-1037) wrote The Canon of Medicine , a synthesis of Greek and Arab medicine that dominated European medicine until the mid-seventeenth century.
The Italian-born Benedictine monk (Muslim) Constantine of Africa (died 1099) from Monte Cassino translated many Arabic medical works into Latin.

Spanish Muslim physician Avenzoar (1094-1162) performed the first tracheostomy on a goat, wrote a Book of Simplification on Therapy and Diet , which became popular in Europe.

Spanish Muslim physician Averroes (1126-1198) was the first to explain the function of the retina and recognize the immunity gained with smallpox.

In Europe, universities such as Montpellier, Padua and Bologna are well known.

At the end of the twelfth century, Rogerus Salernitanus composed his book Chirurgia , laying the groundwork for modern Western surgical handbooks. Roland of Parma and Four Masters Surgery are responsible for spreading Roger's work to Italy, France and England. Roger seems to be more influenced by the 6th century Aiusius and Alexander of Tralles, and Paulina Aegina of the 7th century, than by the Arabs. Hugh of Lucca (1150-1257) founded the Bologna School and rejected the "praiseworthy" theory.

In the thirteenth century in Europe, skilled city artisans called barber-surgeons amputated and broke broken bones while suffering from lower status than university-educated physicians. In 1308, the barber company in London grew rapidly. With little or no formal training, they generally have a bad reputation that does not improve until the development of academic surgery as a medical specialty rather than an accessory field in the 18th century Enlightenment.

Guy de Chauliac (1298-1368) was one of the most famous surgeons of the Middle Ages. His Chirurgia Magna or Large Operation (1363) is the standard text for surgeons to enter the seventeenth century. "

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early modern Europe

There have been several important advances in the art of operation during this period. Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), professor of anatomy at the University of Padua was an important figure in the Renaissance transition from classical medicine and anatomy based on Galen's works, to the empirical approach of 'hands-on' dissection. The anatomical treatise of De humani corporis fabrica reveals many anatomical errors in Galen and suggests that all surgeons should practice by engaging in the practical surgery itself.

The second important character of this era was Ambroise ParÃƒÆ'Ã‚ Â© (sometimes spelled "Ambrose" (c 1510-1590), a French army surgeon from the 1530s until his death in 1590. The practice of burning wounds firing on the battlefield has never used boiling oil, a very dangerous and painful procedure. ParÃƒÆ'Ã‚ Â© started using a less irritating emollient, made from egg yolks, rose oil, and turpentine. He also explained a more efficient technique for effective ligation of blood vessels during amputation.

Another important starting point was the German surgeon Wilhelm Fabry (1540-1634), "The Father of German Surgery", who was the first to recommend amputations above the gangrene area, and to illustrate the tourniquet cutting machine (twisting sticks). The Swiss wife and his assistant Marie Colinet (1560-1640) improved the technique for Caesarian Operation, introduced the use of heat for dilation and stimulated the uterus during labor.In 1624 he became the first person to use magnets to remove metal from the patient's eye, even though he received the credit.

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Modern Surgery

Scientific operation

Operational discipline was put on a sound scientific footing during the Enlightenment in Europe (1715-89). An important figure in this regard is Scottish surgical surgeon (in London) John Hunter (1728-1793), commonly regarded as the father of modern scientific surgery. He brings an empirical and experimental approach to science and is well known throughout Europe for the quality of his research and his papers. Hunter reconstructs surgical knowledge from the beginning; refusing to rely on the testimony of others, he conducted his own surgical experiment to determine the truth of the matter. To help with comparative analysis, he built a collection of over 13,000 specimens of separate organ systems, from the simplest plants and animals to humans.

Hunters have a very advanced knowledge of venereal disease and introduced many new surgical techniques, including new methods to repair damage to the Achilles tendon and a more effective method for applying arterial binding in the case of aneurysms. He was also one of the first to understand the importance of pathology, the danger of spreading the infection and how wound inflammatory problems, bone lesions and even tuberculosis often loosen whatever benefits are derived from the intervention. He consequently adopted the position that all surgical procedures should be used only as a last resort.

The hunter's disciple, Benjamin Bell (1749-1806) became the first scientific surgeon in Scotland, who advocated regular use of opium in post-operative recovery, and advised surgeons to "save skin" to speed healing; his grandson, Joseph Bell (1837-1911) became the inspiration for Arthur Conan Doyle's hero of decency, Sherlock Holmes.

Leading surgeons of the late 18th and early 19th centuries included Percival Pott (1714-1788), who first described tuberculosis in the spine and first suggested that cancer may be caused by environmental carcinogens after he saw a connection between stacked exposure smoke with soot. and the high incidence of scrotum cancer. Astley Paston Cooper (1768-1841) first performed a successful ligation in the abdominal aorta. James Syme (1799-1870) pioneered Symes Amputation for the ankle joint and successfully performed the first disarticulated hip. The Dutch surgeon, Antonius Mathijsen, invented the Plaster of Paris plaster in 1851.

Anesthesia

Control of modern pain through anesthesia was discovered in the mid-19th century. Before the onset of anesthesia, surgery is a painful, traumatic procedure and the surgeon is encouraged to as soon as possible to minimize the suffering of the patient. This also means that operations are largely confined to amputations and removal of external growth.

Beginning in the 1840s, operations began to change dramatically in character with the discovery of an effective and practical anesthetic chemicals such as ether, first used by American surgeon Crawford Long (1815-1878), and chloroform, discovered by James Young Simpson ( 1811 - 1870) and later pioneered in England by John Snow (1813-1858), physician for Queen Victoria, who in 1853 gave chloroform to her in childbirth, and in 1854 denied the theory of poison contagion by tracking out cholera outbreaks in London to an infected person water pump. In addition to relieving the suffering of patients, anesthesia allows more complicated surgery in the internal areas of the human body. In addition, the discovery of muscle relaxants such as curare is allowed for safer applications. American surgeon J. Marion Sims (1813-83) received credit for helping to find Gynecology, but was later criticized for failing to use anesthesia on African test subjects.

Antiseptic operation

The introduction of anesthesia encourages more operations, which inadvertently lead to more dangerous post-operative infections of patients. The concept of infection is not known until relatively modern time. The first advance in the fight against infection was made in 1847 by Hungarian physician Ignaz Semmelweis who noticed that medical students who had recovered from the surgery room caused excessive maternal mortality compared to midwives. Semmelweis, though ridiculed and contested, introduced mandatory hand washing for all those entering the maternity ward and was rewarded with maternal and fetal deaths, but the Royal Society rejected his suggestion.

Until the pioneering work of British surgeon Joseph Lister in the 1860s, most medical men believed that chemical damage from exposure to bad air (see "miasma") was responsible for wound infections, and facilities for washing hands or wounds were not available.. Lister becomes aware of the work of the French chemist Louis Pasteur, which suggests that decay and fermentation can occur under anaerobic conditions if micro-organisms are present. Pasteur suggests three methods for removing the microorganisms responsible for gangrene: filtration, heat exposure, or exposure to chemical solutions. Lister confirmed Pasteur's conclusions with his own experiments and decided to use his findings to develop an antiseptic technique for wounds. Since the first two methods suggested by Pasteur are unsuitable for human tissue care, Lister experimented with the third, spraying carbolic acid on the instrument. He found that this greatly reduced the gangrene incident and he published the results on The Lancet . Then, on August 9, 1867, he read a paper before the British Medical Association in Dublin on the Surgical Practice Antiseptic Principles, reprinted in The British Medical Journal. His work is groundbreaking and lays the groundwork for rapid advancement in infection control that sees the theater of modern antiseptic surgery widely used in 50 years.

Lister continues to develop methods of increasing antisepsis and asepsis when he realizes that infection can be avoided better by preventing bacteria from getting into the wound in the first place. This leads to the emergence of sterile surgery. Lister instructs the surgeon under his responsibility to wear clean gloves and wash their hands in 5% carbolic solution before and after surgery, and has a surgical instrument washed in the same solution. He also introduced a steam steriliser to sterilize the equipment. His discovery paves the way for dramatic expansion for the abilities of surgeons; for his contributions he is often regarded as the father of modern surgery. These three important advances - the adoption of a scientific methodology for surgical operations, the use of anesthesia and the introduction of sterilized equipment - laid the groundwork for today's modern invasive surgical techniques.

At the end of the 19th century William Stewart Halstead (1852-1922) established the basic principles of surgery for asepsis known as the Halsteads principle. Halsted also introduced latex medical gloves. After one of his nurses suffered from skin damage due to sterilize his hands with carbolic acid, Halsted had rubber gloves that could be dipped into the designed carbolic acid.

X-rays

The use of X-rays as an important medical diagnostic tool began with their discovery in 1895 by the German physicist Wilhelm RÃƒÆ'Ã‚Â¶ntgen. He noticed that these rays could penetrate the skin, allowing skeletal structures to be captured on specially treated photographic plates.

Modern technology

In the last century, a number of technologies had a significant impact on surgical practice. These included Electrosurgery in the early 20th century, a practical Endoscopic that began in 1960, and Laser surgery, computer-assisted surgery and Robotic surgery, developed in the 1980s.

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Schedule of surgery and surgical procedure

--B.C.E--

c. 5000 BC. The first known practice of Trepanation in Ensisheim in France.
c. 3300 B.C.E. Trepanation, broken bones, wounds in the Indus Valley Civilization.
c. 2613-2494 BC. The jaws found in Egypt's Fourth Dynasty tomb show signs of surgery to drain the abscess of pus under the first molar teeth.
1754 BC Code of Hammurabi.
1600 BC The Edwin Smith Papyrus of Egypt describes 48 cases of injuries, fractures, wounds, dislocations, and tumors, with treatment and prognosis including stitch wound closures, using honey and moldy bread as an antiseptic, stopping bleeding with raw meat, and immobilization for head and spinal injuries, saving magic as a last resort; it contains detailed anatomical observations but does not show an understanding of organ function, along with the earliest known reference to breast cancer.
1550 BC The Ebers Papyrus of Egypt lists more than 800 drugs and prescriptions.
1250 BC. Asklepios and his sons, Podaleirius and Machaon were reported by Homer as a battlefield surgeon. He also reported the cut arrow head; styptic; administration of tranquilizers and wound dressings with wool.
600 BC Sushruta from India.
5th century BC Medical School in Cnidos and Cos.
400 BC About this year Hippocrates of Cos (460 BC to 370 BC) being "Founder of Western Medicine", insisting on using scientific methods in medicine, proposed that the disease has a natural cause along with Four temperament theories of disease, Hippocrates. He "taught that the wound should be washed in boiled or filtered water, and that the doctor's hands should be kept clean, his nails cut short." He became the first to distinguish benign tumors from malignant tumors, advocating restraining treatment for "hidden" cancers, claiming that surgical intervention led to "rapid death, but to eliminate treatment is prolonging life."

See the surgeon's Wiki article article.

Sushruta (1200-600 BC)
Theodoric Borgognoni (1205-1296)
William from Saliceto (c.1210-1277)
Henri de Mondeville (c.1260-1316)
Mondino de Luzzi (1275-1326)
Guy de Chauliac (c.1300-1368))
John from Arderne (1306-1390)
Antonio Benivieni (1443-1502)
Paracelsus (1493-1541)
Ambroise Pare (1510-1590)
Hieronymus Fabricius (1537-1619)
William Clowes (1540-1604)
Peter Lowe (1550-1612)
Richard Wiseman (1621-1676)
William Cheselden (1688-1752)
Lorenz Heister (1683-1758)
Percivall Pott (1714-1789)
John Hunter (1728-1793)
Pierre-Joseph Desault (1744-1795)
Dominique Jean Larrey (1766-1842)
Antonio Scarpa (1752-1832)
Astley Cooper (1768-1843)
Benjamin Bell (1749-1806)
Charles Bell (1774-1842)
John Bell (1763-1820)
Baron Guillaume Dupuytren (1777-1835)
James Marion Sims (1813-1883)
Joseph Lister (1827-1912)

History of Medicine: Astrology in Medicine | Columbia University ...

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References

external links

The depiction of operations by various artists throughout history
Manual of Military Surgery, by Samuel D. Gross, MD (1861)
The Historyscoper

Source of the article : Wikipedia

History of surgery

Minggu, 10 Juni 2018

History of surgery

Video History of surgery