The Greater Swiss Mountain Dog (German: or French: Grand Bouvier Suisse ) is a breed of dog developed in the Swiss Alps. The name Sennenhund refers to people called Senn or Senner , dairymen and herders in the Swiss Alps. The larger Swiss Mountain dog is almost certainly the result of indigenous dogs mating with large mastiff types brought to Switzerland by foreign settlers. At one time, this type is believed to have become the most popular in Switzerland. It was assumed to die almost at the end of the 19th century, because its work was done by breeds or other machines, but rediscovered in the early 1900s.
This breed is large and large-boned with great physical strength, but is still agile enough to perform the farming tasks used initially. The standard of the breed requires a black, white, and yellow layer.
The Greater Swiss Mountain Dog is a friendly, active, quiet, and dignified person, and loves to be part of the family. It's relatively healthy for its size and tends to have far less problems than the more popular breeds in its size range. Among the four Sennenhunde, or Swiss mountain dogs, this breed is considered the oldest, and also the largest.
Video Greater Swiss Mountain Dog
Histori
Riwayat Breed
The origin of the Swiss Mountain Dog is not yet definitively known. The Swiss themselves can not be clearly defined as exclusive to one of the European tribes; they are residents of a typical transit country. Beginning in 1515, the remote valleys of Switzerland are more or less isolated from the history of the world for three centuries. Certain dog species are created by inbreeding, and puppies are given to neighbors and family members.
There are several theories about the origin of four Sennenhund races. The most popular theory states that dogs descended from Molosser, a large Mastiff type dog, which accompanied the Roman Legions on their invasion of the Alps over 2000 years ago.
The second theory is that in 1100 BC, the Phoenicians brought a large dog to breed with them to a settlement in Spain. The dogs then migrated eastward and influenced the development of the Spanish Mastiff, the Great Pyrenees, the Dogue de Bordeaux, and the Sennenhund ancestry.
A third possibility is that large breeds of dogs are indigenous to central Europe during the Neolithic Age, when humans grow wild and domestic plants and use pets. Whether large breeds are grown in the Alpine area when the Romans invade, the Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs is almost certain to result from the mating of an indigenous dog with a Mastiff dog brought to Switzerland by foreign settlers. The earliest ancestors of the Swiss Mountain Dogs were used by farmers, pastors and traders in central Europe. This breed is raised as a mandatory dog ​​to pull heavy wagons, to keep and move dairy cows, and as supervisors and family friends.
Selective breeding
Selective breeding is based on the ability of a dog to perform certain functions, such as pulling a load or keeping. Swiss farmers need strong multi-purpose dogs and are able to contribute to daily life on the farm. Big, sturdy and confident, the Greater Swiss Mountain Dog is a powerful and agile draft and drover breed to do agricultural work in a very mountainous region. This breed is also used as a butcher's dog, which has been "popular with butchers, livestock traders, manual workers and farmers, who use them as guard dogs, wander or craft dogs and raise them that way." His popularity as a concept dog led to the nickname "the horse of the poor". In the 19th century, the ancestors of modern Swiss Mountain Dogs were widely used in Central Europe by farmers and traders.
Breed updates
The prevailing theory
At one time, these breed ancestors were believed to be among the most popular dogs in Switzerland. It is assumed that the Swiss Mountain Dogs were nearly dead by the end of the 19th century, because their work was done by breeds or other machines, but they were rediscovered in the early 1900s.
In 1908, on the 25th anniversary of the founding of the Swiss Kennel Club (Schweizerische Kynologische Gesellschaft or SKG), two Bernese Mountain Dogs dogs were shown by Franz Schertenlieb to a supporter of Swiss mountain dogs, geologist Albert Heim (April) 12, 1849 - August 31 1937). Heim recognized them as representatives of an old, vanishing, large, mountain dog whose ancestors had been widespread throughout Europe, and was raised as a guard dog, a draught dog, and cattle dogs.
Heim is a Sennenhund expert, and begins to encourage breeders to be interested in them. These efforts resulted in the re-establishment of the breed. In 1909, the dogs were recognized as separate breeds by the Swiss Kennel Club and entered as "Grosser Schweizer Sennenhund" in Volume 12 of the Swiss stud book. The first breed club was formed in 1912 to promote the Greater Swiss Mountain Dog. The Bernese Mountain Dog and the Greater Swiss Mountain Dog are two of four typical Swiss farm dogs rescued from extinction and revitalized by Schertenlieb in the late 1800s.
Secondary theory
There is little information about the larger Swiss Mountain Dog that was written before 1907. Until 1913, it was mentioned only in the report by an exhibition judge, Albert Heim, who is credited with introducing them into the official dog farm. Heim is convinced that the Greater Swiss Mountain Dog is the most guarded dog in the Swiss mountains between 1860 and 1870, but the prevailing theory confirms that in 30 years, it is almost gone. Dr. Hans Raber commented on this discrepancy in his book, Die Schweizer Hunderassen :
If this dog is usually kept around 1870, it can not be believed that only 30 years later you can only find it in a remote valley in the Bern area. A well-known and working dog can not disappear in a short time, especially if it has all the good qualities it gets. Furthermore, this dog is not limited to Switzerland. He is also known in southern Germany, where today the Rottweiler is his noble successor, and in other regions.
This theory asserts that systematic breeding does not occur. Farmers usually do not bring female breeders in season to selected males, so nurseries are left threatened. From the trash, the puppies are liked and look fit to choose. Due to this rigorous selection, and since puppies are often nurtured in their original environment, the appearance and character of the dog remain stable. Practical things are important when choosing a dog and dictating the appearance. It is not known how much attention is given to color, but perhaps irregular or asymmetric dogs are considered less desirable.
Although Heim has said that the big hunting dogs, Metzgerhund, became extinct after foreign imports became more popular, there was speculation as to whether the farmers would get expensive foreign dogs. In 1889, the International Dog Show was held in Winterthur, northern Switzerland; various Sennenhunde exhibited. Raber was convinced that the dogs were present in 1900 as merchant dogs for peddlers and people going to the market, seeing dogs for farmers and butchers for butchers; they are rarely tri-colored. Everywhere the dogs have short, coarse coats; almost all brown, yellow or black with white and brown markings. Lons's description of the northern and central German butcher dogs also fits with Sennenhunde at the beginning of pure breeding; this applies to Austrian dog dogs from Linz, and Matin France and Belgium. It is to their credit that Heim and Schertenleib choose a variation of the slaughter dog - perhaps the most beautiful - and start it on the road to pure breeds.
In 1908 the Swiss mountain dog appeared for the first time in public. At a show in Langenthal, Switzerland, Franz Schertenleib - a breeder from Berner - showed a very strong and short-haired Berner Sennenhund. He has seen this dog and bought it as an oddity. He was eager to hear what the Langenthal judge, Professor Heim, would say about this short-haired Berner. Bello vom Schlossgut is beautifully marked, 26 'in (66 cm) tall, sturdy, and with attractive colors. Heim's first appearance saw the possibility of a new generation of Sennenhunde. He remembered seeing the same dog in the 1860s in different parts of Switzerland. He said to Schertenleib, "The dog belongs to a different category: he is too beautiful and trained to push him aside as a bad example of a Berner He is an example of an extinct and endangered butchered dog." Heim wrote in his judge's note: "Bello is a great, ancient Sennen (Great Meatman) of a great breed, almost extinct.If he was put under" another offspring "I would recognize him as Grossen Sennenhund and bestow him first prize with pleasure. he came in between Durrbachs, I can not give this attractive dog more than the second prize. "This dog is out of place here."
Heim gave Bello the name Grosser Schweizer Sennenhund and fired the first deputy of the newly named descendant of the ring. Heim wrote the first standard based on Bello, and Schertenleib began searching for other members of the new generation. He found two bitches and a short-haired breeding began. The first Swiss Mountain dog was bigger and rougher than the modern dogs; the skull is wider than desired today and shows a stop sign. Judging from old photos, bad colors; black coat mixed with yellow wool on the neck, pelvis and back.
twentieth century development
Throughout the early 20th century, the larger Swiss Mountain Dog population in Europe grew slowly, and it remains a rare breed both in the country of origin Switzerland and the US. During World War II this breed was used by the Swiss Army as a draft dog. In 1945 more than 100 puppies were registered, showing about 350-400 dogs from this breed at that time.
This breed was first recognized internationally in 1939, when the Swiss Standard was first published by FÃÆ' Â © dation Cynologique Internationale. In 1968, J. Frederick and Patricia Hoffman imported the first Greater Swiss Mountain Dog to the United States. The Greater Swiss Mountain Dog Club is formed; the club promotes careful and selective breeding to increase the strength and popularity of the breed gradually. In 1983, the club hosted the Swiss National Dog National Specialist (GMDCA); the club register contains 257 dogs. In 1985, the breed was awarded to the American Kennel Club (AKC) Miscellaneous Group. In 1992, GSMDCA began working toward full AKC recognition, and in July 1995, Greater Swiss Mountain Dog was officially given full recognition in the AKC Working Group.
Oscar The Grouch, Greater Swiss Mountain Dog is featured on the front page of the Wall Street Journal as he prepares to compete in Westminster dog shows. According to AKC, Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs is the 88th in popularity as a breed.
Maps Greater Swiss Mountain Dog
Appearance
The Greater Swiss Mountain Dog is a draft and breed; it is a big, big boned dog with tremendous physical strength. Despite large and muscled bones, this dog is agile enough to perform farming tasks in the mountainous area from its origin.
Symbol
There is black on top of back, ears, tail, and most dog legs. There should be rust on the cheek, fingerprints over the eyes, and also rust will appear at the foot between white and black. There should be white on the muzzle, feet, tail end, in the chest, and up from the snout to pass between the eyes. Symmetrical signs are preferred by breeders.
The double layer has a tight outer layer with a length of about 1.25 to 2 inches (3.2 to 5.1 cm). Topcoat textures can range from short, straight and smooth to longer, heavier and more rugged. The bottom coat is thick and ranges from dark gray choice to light gray to brownish yellow, and should be on the neck, but it can be all over the body - with such thick layers, Sennenhunde shed throughout the year and they have a great shedding. once or twice a year.
While the Greater Swiss Mountain Dog Standard calls black, white, and rusty dogs; they come in other colors that include blue, white and tan tri-color; and rust and bi-white color. In a tri-color blue dog, the blue replaces where the black will become and replaces where it is usually rust. In rusty bi-color dogs, dogs are solid corrosion and white signs in the absence of total black staining.
Size
Men range from 25.5 to 28.5 in (65 to 72 cm) on shoulders and women ranging from 23.5 to 27 in (60 to 69 cm) on the shoulders. There is no standard for weight in Greater Swiss Mountain Dog; males tend to range from 120 to 155 pounds (54 to 70 kg) and women ranging from 100 to 115 pounds (45 to 52 kg). Body length up to height is approximately 10 to 9 proportionate; they are slightly longer than tall.
Conform
Head
Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs have animated and gentle expressions. Their eyes are almond-shaped, varying in color from hazel to chestnut - dark chocolate is preferred - medium size, and not deep or protruding. Close eyelids and eyerims are black.
Medium-sized ears are tall, triangular, gently rounded at the ends and hang near the head when relaxed. When alert, the ears are brought forward and raised in the base. The top of the ear is parallel to the top of the skull.
The skull was flat and wide with little stop. Backskull and muzzle are more or less the same length; the backskull is about twice the width of its snout. The muzzle is large, blunt and straight, and most often slightly up before the end. In adult dogs the skin of the nose is always black.
His lips are clean and breed dry, only slightly developed. They should not be tempted. His teeth meet in a scissor bite.
Nervous, topline and body
Its long neck is strong, muscular and clean. The topline line is the level of withered to croup - the croup is a fused sacral vertebra that forms the pelvic roof and some of the first vertebra of the tail. The long, wide and smooth croup is rounded to the tail insertion. The tail is thicker at the base, tapering to the point when it reaches the hocks; it was brought in the rest. When alert and moving, the tail can carry higher and slightly curved upward; should not curve backwards. The tail bone should be straight.
The chest is deep and wide with a slightly prominent breastbone, with raised ribs well. The chest depths are about one and a half tall in dogs withers, and the deepest point of the chest should be located between the elbows, not above them.
Forequarters
Bigger, slender, stronger, somewhat relaxed, flat, muscular shoulder dog. Their front legs are straight and strong.
A dog walks on his toe like a horse; pastern and dog claws are analogous to the backs of human hands and fingers, respectively. The slope of the slope is very small, but not weak. Round and compact legs with arched toes; feet do not spin in or out.
Hindquarters
Thigh wide, strong and muscular; hind legs are broad, strong and muscular, and the exact angle between the stifles and the hock is essential for draft dogs to provide powerful rear movements during movement. The standard 'sticky arch' refers to where the upper and lower thighs meet. His gun was slightly bent and pointed smoothly into the hocks. Hocks are both let down and straight when viewed from behind. Joint joints correspond to the human ankles and the first short bones in the legs; Dogs do not walk on heels like people do. Round and compact legs with arched toes; they are not in or out. Dewclaws should be removed.
Gait
How to walk the Greater Swiss Mountain Dog should have a backward-level movement. Their walking style should have a good range up front with a powerful mover behind. The health, balance and efficiency that accompany the right structure and the good conditions are important factors in their movement, not speed. Greater Swiss Mountain Dog was raised to work all day on a farm and needed stamina. They are kind of big; because of their history as farm dogs in the mountains, they are very agile and this is seen in their walking style.
Temperament
The Great Swiss Mountain Dog is pleased with its strong enthusiasm and affinity for people and children. This breed is sociable, active, calm and dignified. They do need a lot of space to exercise. They will not be happy to be limited by the life of a kennel; they want to enjoy their family. They crave attention and physical contact. Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs are brave, loyal, and willing workers and eager to please. The Greater Swiss Mountain Dog is convinced of nature; the trahnya soft with children. They can be stubborn and determined. The Greater Swiss Mountain Dog is a smart and fast learner of learning. They can be difficult to eradicate the house, up to 6 months or more; and tend to try to eat anything, can be eaten or not.
The level of activity in the Greater Swiss Mountain Dog varies. They can be athletic, but usually the activity is in a blast; they are active for a short period followed by a nap. They want to be with their owners and participate; their activity level most often corresponds to the level of family activity. As a worker's dog, they are happy to have work to do and enjoy participating in climbing, hauling, compliance testing, herding, pulling weight, and backpacking with their owners.
Being alert and vigilant, the larger Swiss Mountain Dog is a good watchdog. They tend to pay attention to everything around them and quickly sound an alarm. Faced with threats, they will stand on their ground and put on a show that will intimidate those who are not familiar with the dog. Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs accept non-threatening foreigners. They are confident and comfortable in an unknown location, and are stable around strange noises and strangers. They accept dogs and other species, and are reluctant to bite.
This giant breed is slowly maturing in both mind and body, which takes 2 to 3 years. The goal in training this dog is for the owner to build trust through a humane method. As children, they can be very boisterous and they need stable and reliable training to develop physical self-control and behavior. Like all big dogs that are actively working, this type should be well-socialized early in life with dogs and others, and provided with regular activities and training.
Health
For the most part, these types are relatively healthy for their size; Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs have far less problems than breeds that are more populated within the same size range.
Urinary incontinence
Urinary incontinence (UI) is defined as unintentional accidental urination, and is most common in Swiss Mountain Dogs as leaking urine during sleep; it is a life-threatening condition. Apparently more than 20% of females are affected, usually after spayed. Incontinence is sometimes found in men as well. Incontinence can occur for various reasons, such as weak bladder sphincter - commonly the most common cause of the Greater Swiss Mountain Dog - urinary tract infections, excessive water consumption, congenital structural defects and spinal cord disease.
Eyelash Problem
The two most common eye problems facing Greater Swiss Mountain Dog are distichiasis and entropion, with distichiasis being the most common problem. Distichiasis is the presence of additional eyelashes along the eyelids. Distichiasis has been reported in 19%, of breeds and in most cases it is not symptomatic and does not cause problems for dogs. Extra eyelashes can be seen along the eyelids; sometimes extra eyelashes grow so they irritate the eyes. Treatment varies from veterinarian to vet, some prefer to freeze affected hair follicles and others choose to use electrocautery.
Entropion, found in about 3% of the breed, is a rolling of the eyelids, causing the lashes to irritate the eyes. Entropion is a condition that often requires surgery to repair, but once corrected it does not cause future problems for the dog.
Lick fit
Lick fit is licking the panic that the Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs can be prone to. This has been reported in 17% of breeds. When in the middle of a lick, the dog will lick whatever they can - carpets, floors, walls - and will eat whatever they can find, including grass, leaves, dirt, carpets, and will swallow the air and swallow continuously. Their actions make it clear they are in severe gastrointestinal discomfort. Many owners can prevent a fitting fall by ensuring the dog never has an empty stomach with frequent, snacks and large dog biscuits as a snack food.
Epilepsy
Idiopathic Epilepsy (IE) is a frequent seizure condition with no identifiable cause. Seizures occur when nerve cells in the brain become hyperexcited and send a quick-fire message to the body. Treatment of IE depends on the severity of the case and may involve the administration of anticonvulsant drugs daily. IE is present in all the Greater Swiss Mountain Dog lines; usually surfaces between ages 1 to 3 years, but may become apparent as early as 12 months and up to 5 years.
Stomach health problems
Gastric dilatation volvulus (GDV), also known as bloat, is the biggest killer of the Greater Swiss Mountain Dog. GDV occurs in deep-chested breeds and requires immediate veterinary care. This can be caused by consuming too much water, too much food too fast, exercise after meals, stress or unknown conditions. The symptoms are distended stomach, excessive salivation, depression and lethargy. When GDV occurs it cuts the esophagus, and the blood supply to the heart is reduced causing low blood pressure as well as other heart problems; Dogs may experience shock. Organ damage can occur as well and the stomach may rupture causing permanent peritonitis. If left untreated, the dog may die.
The spleen is located on the left cranial abdomen and is held loosely by the ligaments. The main diseases of the spleen are spleen torque and lien tumors. Spleen torque occurs when the spleen rotates along the axis of the blood supply. Symptoms of lien torque include lethargy, abdominal distension and pale mucous membranes. One theory for the development of lien torque is that for dogs with chronic intermittent gastric dilatation, dilation causes the ligaments of the spleen to stretch and increase spleen mobility in the stomach. The spleen becomes torsed because it is no longer anchored in the right location. In Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs larger spleen and irregular spleen; this is about 6 to 8 inches (15 to 20 cm) with a thickness of 2 inches (5.1 cm), and less than 1 cm (2.5 cm). Most of the spleen removed from Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs are 18 to 24 in (46 to 61 cm) with 8 to 10 inches (20 to 25 cm) and are very thick. The size of the spleen is not an abnormal finding in this offspring. It is clear that many dogs of the breed experience enlarged spleen for no apparent reason other than the spleen may continue to spin, fold and open.
Dysplasia
Canine hip dysplasia (CHD) is an irregular joint formation that connects the longest bones of the thighs in the body - to the pelvic socket. The hips are ball-and-joint joints and femoral heads must fit into the socket so that the joints function properly. Early signs of CHD include unwillingness to go up and down the stairs or jump; difficulty rising or lying; and the rabbit jumps while running - both hind legs move together. CBC is one of the major orthopedic diseases in Great Swiss Mountain Dog; it's rarely severe and crippling. Unless x-rays are taken many owners are unaware that they have dysplastic dogs. The goal of raising the Larger Swiss Mountain Dogs from puppies is feeding them so that they are adults slower than the smaller offspring to help avoid hip and other orthopedic problems in adulthood.
The most commonly diagnosed form of Canine Elbow dysplasia in the Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs appears to be degerative joint disease - a progressive form of slow cartilage degeneration that is usually caused by trauma or abnormal wear on the joints. The evidence suggests that most dogs of this type are diagnosed with degenerative joint disease with x-rays of the elbows having the mildest form of Grade I. They do not display clinical signs such as pain, stiffness, decreased range of motion or inequality.
Osteochondrosis is a disorder in normal cartilage development; cartilage becomes thickened abnormally, and small cracks and cracks may develop. Dissecans are when the cartilage becomes dissected resulting in cartilage flaps, which may remain attached or become loose and fall into the joint space. In the Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs most of these cases occur in the shoulder joints and occasionally on the elbows and thighs. Except for very mild cases without the development of flaps, clinical signs are persistent or intermittent inequality. Dogs may be stiff after resting and lameness is usually aggravated by exercise. It is diagnosed with x-rays, and treatment depends on the severity of the case. Mild cases without cartilage flap can be treated and cured with several weeks of rest and treatment with medications and supplements. Many cases require surgery to remove flap and loose fractions, and erode and smooth the damaged surface. Surgical shoulder improvements usually have excellent results, surgical results involving other sites are unpredictable.
Rage Syndrome
Sudden Onset Aggressions (SOA) or Rage Syndrome have been reported in the Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs.
Age
Heavier dogs such as the Great Swiss Mountain Dog tend to have shorter life spans than dogs of medium and small size; longevity is inversely proportional to the size of the breed. Two web sites registered a life expectancy for the Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs at the age of 10 to 11 years; others recorded it 8-10 years. A survey by a US breed club showed an average lifespan of 6.75 years. Dog lifespan may vary across countries, even in the same breeds.
Club kennel and introduction of the pet registry
- Grosser Schweizer Sennenhund, or Greater Swiss Mountain Dog, is internationally recognized by the FÃÆ' Â © dation Cynologique Internationale (FCI). They are in Group 2, Part 3 of Swiss Mountain and Cattle Dogs; standard dated March 25, 2003. The first standard was published not before 5 February 1939.
- The American Kennel Club (AKC) fully recognized this breed in 1995, and grouped them into Working Groups.
- The Canadian Kennel Club recognized this type in 2006, and also placed a breed in the Working Group.
- The United Kennel Club recognized this breed in 1992; they place a breed in the Guardian Dog Group.
- The Kennel Club, based in the UK, classifies the Greater Swiss Mountain Dog in the Working Group.
- The Continental Kennel Club (CKC) lists the Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs and provides minimal information about the breed.
- American Pet Registry Inc. (APRI) has a classifieds section for Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs.
- The American Canine Registry (ACR) enrolls the Great Swiss Mountain Dog as an acceptable breed under the Canine Registry of America.
- Since May 2010 this breed has not been recognized by the Kennel Club of New Zealand or the Australian National Kennel Council.
​​â € <â €
The Greater Swiss Mountain Dog is considered the oldest Swiss breed. This is the largest of the four Sennenhund races; all four have the same color and mark but the size is different.
The evolutionist hierarchy suggests that breeds should genetically congregate into groups sharing recent ancestors. Genetic clustering algorithms can not easily distinguish between the Swiss Mountain High Dog and the Bernese Mountain Dogs.
The four Sennenhund races, under the name of the original breed followed by the most popular English version of the breed name, and their size:
- Grosser Schweizer Sennenhund, Greater Swiss Mountain Dog. Men range between 25.5 to 28.5 inches (65 to 72 cm) on shoulders and women ranging from 23.5 to 27 at (60 to 69 cm) on the shoulders. There is no standard for weight in Greater Swiss Mountain Dog; males tend to weigh between 100 to 140 pounds (45 to 64 kg) and females weigh between 80 to 115 pounds (36 to 52 kg).
- Berner Sennenhund, Bernese Mountain Dog. It is the only one of four with a long coat; this is the second largest with males of 25 to 27.5 inches (64 to 70 cm) and 90 to 130 pounds (41 to 59 kg). Women are 23-26 inches (58 to 66 cm) and weigh 75 to 100 pounds (34 to 45 kg).
- Appenzeller Sennenhund, Appenzeller
- Entlebucher Sennenhund, Entlebucher Mountain Dog. Men are 17-21 in (43-53 cm) tall, and women 16 to 20 in (41-51 cm).
Similar breeds
In addition to the three breeds mentioned in the previous section, Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs deals with other mountain dogs: Boxers, Bullmastiffs, Doberman Pinschers, Great Danes, Great Pyrenees, Komondors, Kuvaszes and Mastiffs. This breed may contribute to the development of St. Bernard and Rottweiler.
See also
- Freight
References
External links
- Greater Swiss Mountain Dog in Curlie (based on DMOZ)
- Historic photos of Grosser Schweizer Sennenhund from Bern Naturaidogsarebad History Museum
- Further information on the geologist and breed of Swiss native dog, advocate Albert Heim (1849-1937), including a photo with the Swiss Mountain Dog in 1929 (in German)
Source of the article : Wikipedia
0 Comments